• A word beginning with a vowel, diphthong, or the letter ρ will have a breathing mark.
• A rough breathing adds an "h" sound: ἑν (pronounced "hen," which means one)
• A smooth breathing has no effect on pronunciation: ἐν (pronounced "en," which means in)
• Breathing marks go on the second vowel in a diphthong ( υἱός, "hwee-OS," son).
• Breathing marks are tucked under circumflex accents ( ὧδε, "HO-de," thus).

• Greek commas and periods are used just as in English.
• Greek colon is a dot above the line (·), used like the English colon or semicolon.
• The Greek question mark is the English semicolon (;).

• A short final vowel may be dropped when the next word begins with a vowel: ἐπὶ αὐτόν -> ἐπ' αὐτόν

• Often added to words ending in -σι and to all verbs of third person ending in -ε, when the next word begins with a vowel.
• Also added at the end of a sentence.

• A Greek word has as many syllables as it has separate vowels or diphthongs.
• A syllable is long by nature when it contains a long vowel or diphthong.
• Single and combined consonants are usually placed at the beginning of a syllable.
• Last three syllables are called: antepenult, penult, and ultima. (mnemonic: ante-pen-ultima)

Basic Accent Rules

• Final αι and οι are considered short when determining accent (except in the optative mood and in the adverb οἴκοι, "at home").

• Stands on one of the last three syllables
• Cannot stand on antepenult if last syllable is long or ends in ξ or ψ. (The acute is "pulled" onto the penult by a long ultima.)
• If ultima is long, a penult accent must be acute.

• Stands on one of the last two syllables
• Only on long syllables
• Only on penult if ultima is short
• Long, accented ultimas in the genitive and the dative of all numbers take the circumflex.
• The genitive plurals of all A-Declension nouns always have the circumflex on the last syllable.

• Only on the last syllable
• An oxytone (a word with an accent on its final syllable) changes its accent to grave before other words in the same sentence.

• A proclitic is an unaccented, monosyllable word, closely attached to the following word.
• An enclitic throws its accent back onto the preceeding word, and is pronounced as if it were a part of it.

• Accents on nouns are persistent; id est, they try to hold their nominative position unless a rule forces a change to the next syllable.

Proclitics and Enclitics to Date

• ἡ, αἱ, ἐν

Noun Basics

• Five cases: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, vocative
• Three numbers: singular, dual, plural
• Three genders: masculine, feminine, neuter
• Three declensions: 1st or A-declension, 2nd or O-Declension, 3rd or Consonant Declension

• nominative: subject of the sentence or clause
• genitive: possessive case
• dative: indirect object
• accusative: direct object
• vocative: used for direct address

• Names of males, rivers, winds, and months (things that run, flow, or change) are usually masculine.
• Names of females, countries, towns, trees, and islands (solid, earthy, or stationary things) and nouns denoting qualities or conditions are usually feminine.

Declensions

• Feminine nouns of the A-Declension end in ᾱ, η, or α.
• Masculine nouns of the A-Declension end in ᾱς or ης.
• Feminines generally end in ᾱ if ε, ι, or ρ precedes the ending.

• Adjectives must agree with the nouns they modify in three things: case, gender, and number.

• Fem 1st Declension, ᾱ: χώρα, country and στρατιά, army (#38, pg 8 and #739, pg 220).
• Feminine, long alpha form of the adjective: ἀξία, worthy (#38, pg 8 and #750, pg 226).
• Feminine form of the article: ἡ, the (#38, pg 8 and #758, pg 234).

Prepositions

• ἐν -- in.